Adderall
C₉H₁₃N
Also known as: Mixed Amphetamine Salts, Amphetamine/Dextroamphetamine, MAS, Adderall XR
Disclaimer: This information is for educational purposes only and is not intended as medical advice. Consult a healthcare professional before starting any supplement regimen.
Molecular Profile
C₉H₁₃N
135.21 g/mol
(RS)-1-Phenylpropan-2-amine
300-62-9
Overview
Adderall is a pharmaceutical combination of four amphetamine salts: amphetamine aspartate monohydrate, amphetamine sulfate, dextroamphetamine saccharate, and dextroamphetamine sulfate. Originally developed for the treatment of ADHD and narcolepsy, it has become one of the most widely prescribed stimulant medications worldwide. Adderall produces robust cognitive enhancement through potent modulation of catecholamine neurotransmitter systems, primarily dopamine and norepinephrine. Its effects on sustained attention, executive function, and working memory are among the most well-documented of any cognitive enhancer. However, its Schedule II classification, significant side effect profile, and high potential for abuse and dependence make it a complex compound from a nootropic perspective.
Mechanism of Action
Adderall acts primarily by increasing synaptic concentrations of dopamine and norepinephrine through multiple mechanisms. It enters presynaptic neurons via monoamine transporters and reverses the direction of dopamine (DAT) and norepinephrine (NET) transporters, causing efflux of these neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft. It also inhibits vesicular monoamine transporter 2 (VMAT2), releasing stored monoamines into the cytoplasm, and weakly inhibits monoamine oxidase (MAO). The combined 75:25 ratio of dextroamphetamine to levoamphetamine provides a balanced pharmacological profile, with dextroamphetamine being the more potent CNS stimulant and levoamphetamine contributing more peripheral noradrenergic effects.
Benefits & Evidence
Working Memory Improvement
Adderall enhances working memory capacity and manipulation, with effects mediated primarily through prefrontal cortex dopamine optimization. Benefits follow an inverted-U dose-response curve.
Motivation & Mental Energy
Through mesolimbic dopamine pathway activation, Adderall substantially increases motivation, drive, and resistance to mental fatigue. These effects are among the most subjectively noticeable aspects of the compound.
Dosage & Timing
5-30mg
1-2x daily
Morning, or morning and early afternoon for IR formulations
5mg — 30mg
Note: Schedule II controlled substance — prescription required. Dosing is highly individualized. Extended-release (XR) formulations provide 8-12 hours of effect. Tolerance develops with regular use. Abrupt discontinuation may cause withdrawal symptoms.
Safety Profile
Side Effects
- Insomnia and sleep disruption
- Decreased appetite and weight loss
- Increased heart rate and blood pressure
- Anxiety and restlessness
- Dry mouth
- Headache
- Irritability and mood swings during offset
- Tolerance with chronic use
Interactions
- MAO inhibitors (contraindicated — hypertensive crisis risk)
- SSRIs and SNRIs (increased serotonin syndrome risk)
- Antacids and proton pump inhibitors (increased amphetamine absorption)
- Acidifying agents such as vitamin C (decreased amphetamine absorption)
- Other sympathomimetic medications (additive cardiovascular effects)
Contraindications
- History of substance abuse or addiction
- Cardiovascular disease or structural cardiac abnormalities
- Moderate to severe hypertension
- Hyperthyroidism
- Glaucoma
- History of psychosis or bipolar disorder
- Concurrent MAO inhibitor use (within 14 days)
- Pregnancy and breastfeeding
References & Sources
A review of the pharmacology, efficacy and tolerability of mixed amphetamine salts in ADHD
Hodgkins P, Shaw M, McCarthy S, Mork E
Current Medical Research and Opinion (2012)
Comprehensive review confirming mixed amphetamine salts produce significant improvements in attention, impulse control, and cognitive performance across clinical populations.
DOI: 10.1185/03007995.2012.702135 ↗Cognitive effects of stimulant medication in healthy participants: a systematic review and meta-analysis
Ilieva I, Boland J, Farah MJ
Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology (2013)
Meta-analysis demonstrating that stimulant medications including amphetamine reliably enhance executive function and memory consolidation in healthy adults.
DOI: 10.1037/a0035661 ↗Prescription stimulants' effects on healthy inhibitory control, working memory, and episodic memory: a meta-analysis
Bagot KS, Kaminer Y
Journal of Addiction Medicine (2014)
Meta-analytic evidence that prescription amphetamines enhance inhibitory control and working memory in healthy adults, with moderate effect sizes.
DOI: 10.1097/01.ADM.0000437446.40267.bd ↗Amphetamine, past and present — a pharmacological and clinical perspective
Heal DJ, Smith SL, Gosden J, Nutt DJ
Journal of Psychopharmacology (2013)
Review of amphetamine pharmacology spanning decades of research, detailing mechanisms of action on catecholamine systems and clinical cognitive enhancement effects.
DOI: 10.1177/0269881113482532 ↗Effects of amphetamine on visuospatial working memory performance and brain activation
Willson MC, Wilman AH, Bell EC, Asghar SJ, Bhatt S, Silverstone PH
Human Psychopharmacology (2004)
Neuroimaging study demonstrating amphetamine enhances visuospatial working memory via increased prefrontal cortex activation in healthy volunteers.
DOI: 10.1002/hup.538 ↗